Iustum Aequum Salutare

Finding our first Commemorative Laws

2025-10-22T08:30:35+00:00

Although the number of commemorative laws in our legal system is relatively high today, as they contain little or no binding rules of conduct, they raise the question of the concept of law with elementary force. Can there be a place for historical memory in the law, or does the legislator only burden the legal system with it unnecessarily? In my study, however, I do not deal with these exciting theoretical problems, but focus on the historical tradition of our commemorative laws, first and foremost looking for the first legislation that can be clearly described as commemorative. I will then present the world of our early commemorative laws of the first half of the nineteenth century, grouping the legislative products of the diets of the estates under four headings: the commemorative laws on recording decisions of ecclesiastical relevance, on foundations, on the founding of our great national institutions, and the birth of the “modern” commemorative law. Finally, I will explain my position on why I consider the legal materials I have presented to be commemorative, despite the differing opinions of authoritative authors, which also explains why I am attempting to draw a comprehensive and contrasty initial arc in the historical development of our commemorative law. My work is primarily based on the legal materials researched from our historical law database and their systematisation according to the above-mentioned aspects – in this article, the reader can get acquainted with the material of the first chapter of my book “Our Commemorative Laws”, which is being prepared and is planned to be published only in 2027, and can express his opinion on it before the manuscript of the book will be closed.

Struggle for the Latvian State Language

2025-10-22T08:30:35+00:00

For Latvia, which restored its independence in 1991, language policy has been a matter of paramount importance for historical reasons. The basic pillars of the current language regulation are the Constitution and the State Language Law, but many sectoral laws also contain provisions, especially in the fields of citizenship, education, media or name use. The primary goal of the legislator has been to change the linguistic landscape of Latvia, which shifted towards unbalanced, Russian-dominated bilingualism during the decades of the Soviet occupation, in a way that ensures the dominance of the Latvian language and pushesnot the Latvian majority but the national minorities towards bilingualism. The first State Language Law of 1989, passed before the restoration of the independence, was based on the Latvian-Russian bilingualism of the state, in which residents would have had the right to decide in which language they would address institutions. However, after the restoration of the independence, but before the law entered into full force in 1992, the legislator amended the regulation in a way that declared Latvian the exclusive official language. The 1998 constitutional amendments and the new 1999 State Language Law completely prohibited the use of languages other than Latvian not only within public institutions, but also in the communication between residents and public institutions – except for a few enlisted, primarily emergency situations – and significantly restricted the free language use in the private sphere. Despite this, the legislator’s goal of ensuring the dominance of the Latvian language has still not been fully achieved, leading to continued legislation on sectoral restrictions in recent decades, criticized by those concerned in Latvia and international forums protecting minority rights.

Introduction to studies discussing the relationship between artificial intelligence and media

2025-10-22T08:30:36+00:00

Introduction

Artificial Intelligence Literacy

2025-10-22T08:30:36+00:00

Media literacy and AI literacy are essential skills of the 21st century. They are indispensable in education, the labor market, and digital citizenship. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to define the skills precisely, to define the framework of use, and to develop measurement tools and to make them known to the professional audience. The study focuses on three main areas in this regard. First, it presents the relationship between media literacy and AI literacy. Then, it introduces the AI literacy framework in higher education. Finally, it presents tools suitable for measuring AI literacy. Accordingly, the study first presents the UNESCO Digital Skills Framework. After media literacy, the study discusses the issue of AI literacy. AI literacy has been interpreted and defined in various ways. Ng and colleagues identified four main areas: knowledge and understanding of AI, the ability to use and apply AI, the ability to evaluate and create AI, and ethical considerations. The paper then presents the UNESCO AI Literacy for Students framework, which outlines 12 competencies in four dimensions: Human-Centered Thinking, Ethics in AI, AI Techniques and Applications, and AI System Design. These competencies span three levels of development: Understanding, Applying, and Creating. In the third major unit of the paper, we present the available measurement tools from the perspective of AI Literacy

The freedom of expression of Artificial intelligence and its content moderation in the DSA and the AI Act

2025-10-22T08:30:37+00:00

After a brief introduction to AI, the paper will discuss whether AI has freedom of expression or whether it is only available to the companies that own it. This is important in the context of whether AI can be considered a separate legal actor in the context of content creation in social media, which is the second main issue of the paper. Here, negative and positive cases of content moderation are presented, i.e. whether the full spectrum of content hosting in social media can be entrusted to AI as a separate actor with respect to liability, or whether it requires some form of human control, direction or supervision.

Transparency Challenges of AI-Assisted Content Moderation Under the Digital Services Act

2025-10-22T08:30:37+00:00

The study, titled "Transparency Challenges of AI-Assisted Content Moderation Under the Digital Services Act," critically examines the transparency challenges inherent in AI-assisted content moderation within the regulatory framework of the Digital Services Act (DSA). As AI technologies have become integral to content moderation, enhancing efficiency and scalability, they simultaneously introduce complex legal and ethical dilemmas. The DSA aims to strengthen platform transparency, safeguard fundamental rights, and ensure the accountability of moderation processes. A pivotal question thus emerges: how can these regulatory objectives be effectively realized in an ecosystem where AI-driven moderation mechanisms predominate?

This study underscores that the transparency obligations imposed by the DSA, particularly in relation to algorithmic decision-making, present unique compliance challenges for AI-based moderation systems. It conducts a comprehensive analysis of the relevant DSA provisions, the compliance strategies adopted by online platforms, and the enforcement proceedings initiated by the European Commission under Article 66, with a particular emphasis on AI governance.

The findings indicate that while the DSA constitutes a significant advancement in regulatory transparency, ensuring full transparency in AI-assisted moderation remains a formidable challenge. Addressing these persistent gaps may necessitate a critical reassessment of the regulatory and operational frameworks governing AI-driven content moderation.

Algorithmic Bias as a Legal Polemic

2025-10-22T08:30:37+00:00

The paper explores algorithmic bias as a legal dilemma, presenting the conceptual basis of the phenomenon, its effects and regulatory challenges. The fragmented regulatory environment in the US and the EU’s strict, user-centric framework, such as the GDPR, DSA and AI regulations, are presented. As a result of this paper, we highlight the key role of transparency and accountability mechanisms in mitigating bias and emphasise the urgent need for coordinated global regulatory efforts. The study also points out that existing enforcement mechanisms are often insufficient for effective implementation. In particular, the problem of ‘black box’ algorithm design persists, which hinders the identification and remediation of biases, and regulatory frameworks show significant inequalities between different groups. In this paper, we conclude that without a globally harmonized regulatory framework, existing efforts cannot effectively address the challenges of AI, in particular bias. In the paper, we urge global cooperation, which we believe is essential to respond appropriately to technological developments.

Algorithms and Transparency: the Legal Regulation of Recommender Systems on Online Platforms in the European Union

2025-10-22T08:30:38+00:00

The increasing dominance of digital services has significantly reshaped online information flows, content consumption habits, and platform operations. The European Union's Digital Services Act (DSA) aims to regulate the legal environment of online services, ensuring user rights, transparency, and a balanced digital market. Recommendation systems, which influence content accessibility and visibility, play a crucial role in this regulatory framework. Their algorithmic decision-making processes impact public opinion, market competition, and fundamental rights, prompting the EU to enforce transparency and accountability in ranking mechanisms, targeted recommendations, and automated decision-making. This study explores the DSA’s provisions on recommendation systems, analyzing their practical implications and assessing their legal and ethical impact. It examines platform obligations, transparency requirements, and redress mechanisms that protect user rights. Ethical concerns, such as algorithmic bias, filter bubbles, and manipulation risks, are discussed, along with the tension between transparency and excessive information overload. By critically evaluating the DSA’s approach, the study highlights key challenges in implementation and enforcement. It argues that while transparency mandates are a step forward, real user control remains limited. Without clear regulatory guidelines and oversight, platform compliance may lead to mere "transparency washing" rather than substantive change.

Is Artificial Intelligence Opening a New Era of Disinformation?

2025-10-22T08:30:38+00:00

This paper examines the relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) and disinformation and seeks to answer whether AI is opening a new era in disinformation. The author conducts a systematic investigation, introducing disinformation chain as a new concept. Using this theoretical framework, the paper describes the motivation, creation, dissemination, detection, reception and wider social impact of disinformation. It also describes the application of AI in these steps. The role of AI is particularly significant in the dissemination and social impact of disinformation, while the emergence of generative AI has not proved to be decisive in the creation of disinformation, contrary to prior expectations. If we can talk about a new era, it is more related to social media algorithms and participatory propaganda with the active involvement of people, which has led to the emergence of a post-truth era since 2016. The article also proposes a set of actions for effective measures against disinformation along the disinformation chain. Finally, the author concludes by expressing his belief that the statement ‘we cannot believe our eyes and ears’ crystallises not as a fatalistic creed but as a healthy scepticism, since no society can function without human trust.

A Guide to Draft a School (Cyber)Bullying Policy

2025-10-22T08:30:39+00:00

The phenomenon of bullying and cyberbullying unfortunately enmeshes the Hungarian public education system, and many students, parents and teachers suffer from the trauma of bullying. The problem can only be addressed through an interdisciplinary approach, which requires the tools of psychology and pedagogy as well as the tools of law. The aim of this paper is to develop a model anti-bullying policy that provides a common minimum set of guarantees and a starting point for primary and secondary schools to develop their own independent policy. In the annex to the study, a model policy has been drafted, the elements of which fit organically into the existing legal framework and complement it with the scientific background and elements of bullying. By way of example, in addition to addressing the issue of personal and territorial scope, the policy defines bullying and cyberbullying behavior, as well as the retaliation that often occurs in the course of this phenomenon. It also offers a recommended set of procedures, which, if fine-tuned, can be used to deal with incidents of bullying in an appropriate manner.

The Social Effects of Artificial Intelligence-Based Content Filtering Algorithms, with Special Regard to Social Media Platforms

2025-10-22T08:30:39+00:00

Online communication spaces, especially social media platforms, have become the dominant means of information flow, but they are increasingly exposed to the spread of extremist ideologies, illegal and sometimes disturbing content. Such platforms are increasingly using AI-based algorithms to filter and moderate content to address these challenges. The purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensive picture of the reasons for the spread of automated content moderation, its technical solutions, and its social effects. The study discusses in detail the legal environment that allowed these systems to take off, presents the most used technical methods, and analyzes how they affect freedom of speech, social discourse, and political polarization. The results highlight that although artificial intelligence can significantly increase the effectiveness of moderation, its use involves serious challenges and risks that affect democratic values and the functioning of social media. The study also makes recommendations on the importance of regulation and human oversight to ensure the protection of free speech and the preservation of social diversity in the online space.

VI. Consumer protection current affairs – consumer protection challenges of digitalization and artificial intelligence

2025-10-22T08:30:39+00:00

Conference report