Design, sizing, and feasibility analysis of a hybrid renewable generation system for the self-sufficiency of an off-grid house
Abstract
Rural isolation from national electricity grids represents a persistent infrastructure challenge in Mediterranean mountainous regions, where isolated dwellings have traditionally depended on generators with prohibitive environmental and economic costs. This study proposes a modular engineering framework for the design and sizing of hybrid off-grid renewable generation systems, applied as a case study to a residential property in El Pla de La Llacuna (Villalonga, Valencia, Spain). The methodology develops a decoupled catalogue of four independent energy modules – solar photovoltaic (PV), micro-wind, geothermal, and electrochemical storage – each governed by strict technical boundary conditions that filter site suitability. The framework was applied through a multi-step process: resource characterisation using the PVGIS-SARAH3 database and hyper-local AVAMET meteorological data; load profile construction via a bottom-up appliance inventory; and iterative system sizing validated through computational simulation. Three energy supply scenarios were simulated and benchmarked against a 100% fossil-fuel baseline. The results demonstrate that a hybrid solar-wind configuration comprising 8 photovoltaic panels (4.28 kWp), 6 LiFePO4 batteries (28.8 kWh), and a 10 kW Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) constitutes the optimal solution for this site, achieving total annual energy self-sufficiency with a capital expenditure of €12,328, a net present value (NPV) of €337,406, a return on investment (ROI – return on investment) of 34.07, and a payback period of 0.323 years. Geothermal exploitation was rejected due to geological and logistical constraints, while continuous wind generation was discarded as a primary source due to insufficient mean velocities, though transient gusts up to 73.4 km/h were successfully harvested as a winter supplementary resource.
References
Abasova, U., Zaidi, S. A. H., & Ashraf, R. U. (2026). The critical challenges of energy diversification and environmental sustainability in the European Green Deal: Empirical evidence from European countries. Energy Policy, 218, 115517. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2026.115517
Abd El-Sattar, H., Kamel, S., Hassan, M.H. (2025) A hybrid optimisation framework for cost-effective sizing and operation of off-grid hybrid power systems integrated with different storage units. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.05.329
AbdelHadi, H., Mahmoud, A.M., Saied, E.M.M., Ebrahim, M.A. (2025) Innovative real data-driven multi-objective optimisation for sustainable energy in Siwa Oasis, Egypt using HYCHOPSO. Results in Engineering. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.106228
Abed, I., Maheri, A. (2025) Cost and Power Modelling Parameters of Different Utility Scale Battery Technologies for Design of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems. 2025 9th International Conference on Environment Friendly Energies and Applications, EFEA 2025 - Conference Proceedings. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/EFEA67685.2025.11386052
Adeeb, J., Farhan, A., Al-Salaymeh, A. (2019). Temperature effect on performance of different solar cell technologies. Journal of Ecological Engineering. 20(5), 249–254. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/105543
aelēc – Asociación de Empresas de Energía Eléctrica. (n.d.). Datadis. URL: https://datadis.es/home (Accessed: March 2026).
Ahmad, R., Farzaneh, H. (2024) Techno-economic analysis and dynamic power simulation of a hybrid solar-wind-battery system for power supply in rural areas in Pakistan. Cleaner Energy Systems. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cles.2024.100127
Ahmad, T., Zhang, D. (2021) Renewable energy integration/techno-economic feasibility analysis, cost/benefit impact on islanded and grid-connected operations: A case study. Renewable Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.08.041
Akan, A. E., Akan, A. P. (2022). Evaluation of feasibility analyses for different hub heights of a wind turbine. Journal of Energy Systems. 6(1), 97–107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30521/jes.955100
Akinyele, D.O., Rayudu, R.K., Nair, N.K.C. (2016) Grid-independent renewable energy solutions for residential use: The case of an off-grid house in wellington, New Zealand. Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference, APPEEC. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/APPEEC.2015.7380969
Alipour, M., Esen, E., Rahimi Varzeghani, A., Kizilel, R. (2020). Performance of high capacity Li-ion pouch cells over wide range of operating temperatures and discharge rates. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 860, 113903. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.113903
Alotaibi, M.M., Alturki, A.A. (2025) A novel metathetical framework for renewable energy integration: A regional case study to meet Saudi's 2030 Vision. Applied Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126627
Al-Quraan, A., Al-Mhairat, B. (2024) Sizing and energy management of standalone hybrid renewable energy systems based on economic predictive control. Energy Conversion and Management. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.117948
Anderson, R. U. (2020). Derivation of Solar Position Formulae. arXiv:2009.07094 [physics.pop-ph]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2009.07094
Anthony, M., Valsalal, V., Raju, R., (...), Aly, A.A. (2021) Autonomous fuzzy controller design for the utilisation of hybrid PV-wind energy resources in demand side management environment. Electronics (Switzerland). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10141618
Assi, M., Amer, M. (2025). A comparative analysis of lithium-ion batteries using a proposed electrothermal model based on numerical simulation. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 16(2), 60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16020060
Autosolar (n.d. a). Batería de Litio Pylontech US5000 48V 4.8kWh. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/baterias-litio-48v/bateria-litio-48kwh-pylontech-us5000-48v (Accessed: March 2026).
Autosolar (n.d. b). Cables Pylontech LV Batería-Inversor. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/accesorios-baterias/cables-pylontech-lv-bateria-inversor (Accessed: March 2026).
Autosolar (n.d. c). Estructura Cubierta Tejas 4 Paneles Solares con Salvatejas 02V. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/estructuras-cubierta-teja/estructura-cubierta-tejas-4-paneles-solares-con-salvatejas-02v (Accessed: March 2026).
Autosolar (n.d. d). Estructura Cubierta Tejas 5 Paneles Solares con Varilla 01V. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/estructuras-cubierta-teja/estructura-cubierta-tejas-5-paneles-solares-con-varilla-01v (Accessed: March 2026).
Autosolar (n.d. d). Inversor Híbrido Monofásico Deye 6kW SUN-6K-SG05LP1-EU-AM2-P. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/inversores-hibridos-monofasicos/inversor-deye-6kw-hibrido-monofasico-sun-6k-sgo5lp1-eu-am2-p (Accessed: March 2026).
Autosolar (n.d. e). Rack para Baterías de Litio 19" 22U. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/accesorios-baterias/rack-para-baterias-litio-19-22u (Accessed: March 2026).
Autosolar (n.d. g). Rollo Cable Unifilar 6mm² H1Z2Z2-K 60m Negro. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/cable-unifilar/rollo-cable-unifilar-6mm2-h1z2z2-k-60m-negro (Accessed: March 2026).
Autosolar. (n.d. f). Panel Solar Bifacial 535W JA Solar TOPCon N-Type Black Frame. Autosolar. URL: https://autosolar.es/panel-solar-24-voltios/panel-solar-bifacial-535w-ja-solar-topcon-n-type-black-frame (Accessed: March 2026).
AVAMET – Associació Valenciana de Meteorologia. (n.d.). MXO – Vilallonga – la Llacuna (est) [meteorological station data]. AVAMET. URL: https://www.avamet.org/mxo_i.php?id=c25m255e07 (Accessed: March 2026).
Behmounesi, S.A., Saraei, A., Afshar, H., (...), Dehghani-Sanij, A. (2024) Techno-economic analysis of optimally hybrid photovoltaic-wind systems to meet the energy demand of a residential building in six different areas of Iran. Energy Conversion and Management. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2024.119131
Bicks, A.T. (2021) Economic Analysis And Utilization Of Hybrid Wind-Solar Pv System For Households – A Case Study In Ethiopia. International Journal of Energy, Environment and Economics. URL: https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/85139914939
Bucci, A., Barbero, D., Lasagna, M., Forno, M. G., De Luca, D. A. (2017). Shallow groundwater temperature in the Turin Area (NW Italy): Vertical distribution and anthropogenic effects. Environmental Earth Sciences. 76(221). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6546-4
Bullen, S.J., Emam, M., Sekiguchi, H., Hassan, H. (2025) Techno-economic and environmental analysis of a hybrid energy system using a pumped hydro storage system for powering a university building. AIP Conference Proceedings. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0290626
Caglayan, N. (2025) Optimisation of Grid-Connected and Off-Grid Hybrid Energy Systems for a Greenhouse Facility. Energies. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en18174712
Chen, C., Aidong Yang, A., Bañares-Alcántara, R. (2021) Renewable methanol production: Understanding the interplay between storage sizing, renewable mix and dispatchable energy price. Advances in Applied Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2021.100021
Chen, T., Liang, L., Wen, X., Zhang, X. (2021) Experimental research and energy consumption analysis on the economic performance of a hybrid-power gas engine heat pump with LiFePO4 battery. Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118913
Das, B.K. (2020) Optimal sizing of stand-alone and grid-connected solar PV systems in Bangladesh. International Journal of Energy for a Clean Environment. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1615/interjenercleanenv.2020033438
De León-Ruiz, J. E., Beltrán-Chacón, R., Carvajal-Mariscal, I., Zacarías, A., Rodríguez-Maese, R. (2022). A data-driven approach to low-enthalpy shallow geothermal energy extraction: A case study on indoor heating for precision agriculture applications. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering. 40, 102578. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2022.102578
Diyono, D., Onwuanaku, V., Cappon, H., (...), Keesman, K.J. (2026) Optimised design of a hybrid renewable energy system with biogas energy storage for sustainable rural electrification: A case study in Sempu, East Java, Indonesia. Energy Reports. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2026.109288
Dong, S., Yu, Y., Li, B., Ni, L. (2024). Field test and geologic-thermal-economic analysis of medium-depth borehole heat exchanger. Journal of Cleaner Production. 447, 141381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.141381
EC–JRT – European Commission, Joint Research Centre. (n.d.). PVGIS – Photovoltaic Geographical Information System. European Commission. URL: https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/ (Accessed: March 2026).
Engin, M. (2013) Sizing and simulation of PV-wind hybrid power system. International Journal of Photoenergy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/217526
Er, Z. (2023). Solar radiation forecasts and a tiny house PV off-grid system. European Journal of Science and Technology. (46), 7–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31590/ejosat.1234216
Eteiba, M.B., Barakat, S., Mahmoud Samy, M.M., Wahba, W.I. (2018) Optimisation of an off-grid PV/Biomass hybrid system with different battery technologies. Sustainable Cities and Society. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.01.012
Fares, D., Fathi, M., Mekhilef, S. (2022) Performance evaluation of metaheuristic techniques for optimal sizing of a stand-alone hybrid PV/wind/battery system. Applied Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117823
Forrousso, S., Idrissi Kaitouni, S., Mana, A., (...), Azzouzi, H. (2024) Optimal sizing of off-grid microgrid building-integrated-photovoltaic system with battery for a net zero energy residential building in different climates of Morocco. Results in Engineering. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102288
Fosso Tajouo, G., Tiam Kapen, P., Djanna Koffi, F.L. (2023) Techno-economic investigation of an environmentally friendly small-scale solar tracker-based PV/wind/Battery hybrid system for off-grid rural electrification in the mount bamboutos, Cameroon. Energy Strategy Reviews. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2023.101107
Ghaziasgar, S., Pourfayaz, F., Vaziri Rad, M.A. (2025) Data-informed hybrid renewable system design based on building energy demand prediction: A machine learning and deep learning approach. Journal of Energy Storage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2025.117742
Gicevskis, K., Linkevičs, O., Groza, E., Kiene, S. (2021) Multiple Scenario and Criteria Approach for Optimal Solution and Sizing of Household Off-grid System. 2020 IEEE 8th Workshop on Advances in Information, Electronic and Electrical Engineering, AIEEE 2020 - Proceedings. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/AIEEE51419.2021.9435627
He, Y., Guo, S., Dong, P., (...), Zhou, J. (2023) A state-of-the-art review and bibliometric analysis on the sizing optimisation of off-grid hybrid renewable energy systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113476
Jadhav, R.S., Patil, R.S.B. (2020) Design and Implementation of PV-Wind Battery Hybrid System for off grid and on grid. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Inventive Systems and Control, ICISC 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICISC47916.2020.9171150
Kavaliauskas, Ž., Šajev, I., Blažiūnas, G., Gecevičius, G. (2023). Electronic life cycle monitoring system for various types of lead acid batteries. Applied Sciences. 13(8), 4746. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084746
Kitai, A. (2018). p–n Junction Solar Cells. In: Kitai, A. Principles of Solar Cells, LEDs and Related Devices: The Role of the PN Junction. 2nd ed. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. 201–263. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119450986.ch5
Kolhe, M., Ranaweera, K.M.I.U., Gunawardana, A.G.B.S. (2013) Techno-economic optimum sizing of hybrid renewable energy system. IECON Proceedings (Industrial Electronics Conference). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/IECON.2013.6699421
Layadi, T.M., Champenois, G., Mostefaï, M., (...), Korhan, K. (2023) Design of sustainable multi-source power systems using lithium batteries. Journal of Energy Storage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106648
Leroy Merlin (n.d.). Generador Inverter Creta ATS Silent 7.5 kW. Leroy Merlin. URL: https://www.leroymerlin.es/productos/generador-inverter-creta-ats-silent-7-5w-89288143.html (Accessed: March 2026).
Li, J. (2019) Optimal sizing of grid-connected photovoltaic battery systems for residential houses in Australia. Renewable Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.09.099
Li, J., Liu, J., You, Y., Zhang, A. (2022). Research progress on energy conversion efficiency of wind turbine. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology. 3, 182–193. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54097/hset.v3i.706
Maghrabie, H. M., Abdeltwab, M. M., Tawfik, M. H. M. (2023). Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs): Materials, models, applications, and sustainability. Energy and Buildings. 299, 113560. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113560
Martínez del Olmo, W. (2021). Interpretación de Secuencias Deposicionales de 3er Orden: Aplicación a las Sucesiones Estratigráficas del Mesozoico del Prebético y del Neógeno del Golfo de Valencia. Boletín Geológico y Minero. 132(3), 299–324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21701/bolgeomin.132.3.004
Mayer, M.J., Szilágyi, A., Gróf, G. (2020) Environmental and economic multi-objective optimisation of a household level hybrid renewable energy system by genetic algorithm. Applied Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115058
Mohammadnezami, M.H., Ehyaei, M.A., Rosen, M.A., Ahmadi, M.H. (2015) Meeting the electrical energy needs of a residential building with a wind-photovoltaic hybrid system. Sustainability (Switzerland). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su7032554
Nguyen, V.G., Sharma, P., Bora, B.J., (...), Dong, V.H. (2024) Techno-economic analysis of a hybrid energy system for electrification using an off-grid solar/biogas/battery system employing HOMER: A case study in Vietnam. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.09.046
Nizam, M.L.H.S., Tunku Mansur, T.M.N.T., Baharudin, N.H., Syukri, M. (2025) Comparative Analysis of Hybrid Standalone Photovoltaic System Configurations for Off-Grid Applications. Conference Proceedings - 2025 9th International Conference on Man-Machine Systems, ICoMMS 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICoMMS66553.2025.11200207
Petrollese, M., Seche, P., Cocco, D. (2019) Analysis and optimisation of solar-pumped hydro storage systems integrated in water supply networks. Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116176
Rajbongshi, R., Borgohain, D., Mahapatra, S. (2017) Optimisation of PV-biomass-diesel and grid base hybrid energy systems for rural electrification by using HOMER. Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.03.056
Rathod, A.A., Balaji, B. (2025) Design and optimisation of various hybrid renewable energy systems using advanced algorithms for powering rural areas. Journal of Cleaner Production. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.145199
Rinchi, B., Dababseh, R., Jubran, M., Al-Dahidi, S., Abdalla, M. E. B., Ayadi, O. (2025). Global prediction of optimal solar panel tilt angles via machine learning. Applied Energy. 382, 125322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125322
Roy, A., Meshram, S., Patil, R. B., Arun, S., Kore, A. (2024). Life cycle testing and reliability analysis of prismatic lithium-iron-phosphate cells. International Journal of Sustainable Energy. 43(1), 2337439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2024.2337439
Sahu, P.K., Jena, S., Sahoo, U. (2021) Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy System with Energy Storage for Rural Electrification. Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119555667.ch3
Shimomura, M., Mochizuki, T., Takano, M. (2016) Numerical Analysis of High-Performance Lithium-Ion and Lead-Acid Batteries with Capacity Fade for an Off-Grid Residential PV System. Journal of Energy Engineering. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EY.1943-7897.0000264
Tang, F., Lahoori, M., Nowamooz, H., Rosin-Paumier, S., Masrouri, F. (2023). The performance of a Horizontal Ground Heat Exchanger (HGHE) under the seasonal ground energy storage behaviour. E3S Web of Conferences. 382, 23007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202338223007
Tarnawski, V. R., Leong, W. H., Momose, T., Hamada, Y. (2009). Analysis of ground source heat pumps with horizontal ground heat exchangers for Northern Japan. Renewable Energy. 34(1), 127–134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.03.026
TESUP (n.d.). Atlas Vertical Home Wind Turbine. TESUP. URL: https://tesup.com/us/tesup-vertical-wind-turbines-for-homes (Accessed: March 2026).
Thirunavukkarasu, M., Lala, H., Sawle, Y. (2023) Techno-economic-environmental analysis of off-grid hybrid energy systems using honey badger optimiser. Renewable Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.119247
Tirones, S., Kumar, R. (2024). Design of microcontrollers based smart battery management system enhancement for off-grid remote homes. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR). 13(4), 379–386. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21275/SR24330232016
Tuama, S. A., Abdulrazzaq, O. A., Abdulridha, S. A., Faiq, N. F. (2021). Investigating the Impact of Tilt Angle, Orientation, and Configuration on PV System Performance Using PVSyst Software. Journal of Applied Sciences and Nanotechnology. 1(3), 73–85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53293/jasn.2021.3916.1059
Tutkun, N., Çelebi, N., Bozok, N. (2017) Optimum unit sizing of wind-PV-battery system components in a typical residential home. Proceedings of 2016 International Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference, IRSEC 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/IRSEC.2016.7984035
Van Eck, N. J., & Waltman, L. (2014). Visualising bibliometric networks. In Measuring scholarly impact: Methods and practice (pp. 285-320). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Virdy, S.S., Yamba, F.D., Mishra, M., (...), Gheewala, S.H. (2026) Techno-economic feasibility analysis of hybrid renewable energy system for off-grid African communities: Insights from a Zambian case study. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development. DOI: https://doi.org/10.61435/ijred.2026.61421
Wang, Q., Guo, K., Gu, S., Huang, W., Peng, H., Wu, W., Ding, J. (2024). Electrical performance, loss analysis, and efficiency potential of industrial-type PERC, TOPCon, and SHJ solar cells: A comparative study. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications. 32(12), 889–903. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3839
Wen, J., Zhao, D., Zhang, C. (2020) An overview of electricity powered vehicles: Lithium-ion battery energy storage density and energy conversion efficiency. Renewable Energy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.09.055
Wise, A. S., Neher, J. M. T., Arthur, R. S., Mirocha, J. D., Lundquist, J. K., Chow, F. K. (2022). Meso- to microscale modeling of atmospheric stability effects on wind turbine wake behavior in complex terrain. Wind Energy Science. 7, 367–386. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-367-2022
Yang, Z., Li, X., Li, J., (...), Yang, X.-G. (2025) Study on Influencing Factors of Calendar Aging and Cycle Aging of LFP Batteries. Applied Sciences (Switzerland). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312749
Zhao, B., Hu, R., Jiang, D., (...), Liu, H. (2020) Optimised Design of Lithium Battery System for Microgrid Energy Storage in Severely Cold and High Elevation Regions. Zhongguo Dianli/Electric Power. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11930/j.issn.1004-9649.202001028
