Electoral Deepfakes: Regulatory Issues, Challenges and Constitutional Dilemmas
Abstract
The rise of digital technology and social media as decisive factors in influencing public opinion has also highlighted the potential for innovative solutions to be widely adopted in election campaigns. In addition to disinformation, deepfake content is one of its manifestations and has the potential to mislead and deceive the public to an unprecedented degree. Manipulated recordings published during an election campaign can pose a serious threat to democratic public discourse. Not only do they violate a candidate's personal rights, they also mislead voters and undermine the integrity of the electoral process. While legal regulation seems to be a necessary solution to undermine confidence in the democratic institutional system and its legitimacy, its compatibility with the constitutional framework is often questionable.
References
Appel, Markus – Prietzel, Fabian: The detection of political deepfakes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 27., No. 4. (2022) https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmac008
Bodi, Matthew: The First Amendment Implications of Regulating Political Deepfakes. Rutgers Computer and Technology Law Journal, Vol. 47., No. 1. (2021)
Brown, Nina I.: Deepfakes and the Weaponization of Disinformation. Virginia Journal of Law & Technology, Vol. 23., No. 1. (2020)
Calvet-Bademunt, Jordi – Mchangama, Jacob – Anzabi, Isabelle: That Violates My Policies: AI Laws, Chatbots, and the Future of Expression. The Future of Free Speech, October 2025.
Carver, Steven: Election Integrity and the First Amendment: A Statutory Analysis of States’ Regulations of Election Deepfakes. Mitchell Hamline Law Review, Vol. 50., No. 3. (2024)
Chesney, Bobby – Citron, Danielle: Deep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy, and National Security. California Law Review, Vol. 107. (2019) https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3213954
Chiacchiaro, Evan: Generative AI and Electoral Communications. Georgetown Law Technology Review, Vol. 9., No. 1. (2025)
Cupać, Jelena – Sienknecht, Mitja: Regulate against the machine: how the EU mitigates AI harm to democracy. Democratization, Vol. 31., No. 5. (2024) https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2024.2353706
De Brasi, Diego – Papathomas, Amphilochios – Tsiampokalos, Theofanis: Fake news in Ancient Greece: Why does it matter? In: Diego De Brasi – Amphilochios Papathomas – Theofanis Tsiampokalos (szerk.): Fake news in ancient Greece: Forms and functions of “false information” in Ancient Greek literature. Berlin, de Gruyter, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111393629
Defending Each and Every Person from False Appearances by Keeping Exploitation Subject to Accountability Act of 2019 or the DEEP FAKES Accountability Act (H.R. 3230).
Diakopoulos, Nicholas – Johnson, Deborah: Anticipating and Addressing the Ethical Implications of Deepfakes in the Context of Elections. New Media & Society, Vol. 23., No. 7. (2021) https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820925811
Dobber, Tom – Metoui, Nadia – de Vreese, Claes: Do (microtargeted) Deepfakes Have Real Effects on Political Attitudes? The International Journal of Press/Politics, Vol. 26., No. 1. (2021) https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220944364
Doctored Nancy Pelosi video highlights threat of "deepfake" tech. CBC News, May 26, 2019. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/doctored-nancy-pelosi-video-highlights-threat-of-deepfake-tech-2019-05-25/
First Draft Code of Practice on Transparency of AI-Generated Content. December 17, 2025. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/first-draft-code-practice-transparency-ai-generated-content
Geng, Yinuo: Comparing „Deepfake” Regulatory Regimes in the United States, the European Union, and China. Georgetown Law Technology Review, Vol. 7., No. 1. (2023)
Gosztonyi, Gergely – Lendvai, Gergely Ferenc: Deepfake: A Multifaceted Dilemma in Ethics and Law. Journal of Information Ethics, Vol. 32., No. 2. (2023)
Green, Rebecca: Counterfeit Campaign Speech. Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 70., No. 6. (2019)
Gurumurthy, Jyothsna: In the Pursuance of a Robust Legal Framework to Address Deepfake Harms: An Analysis of the Indian Legal Discourse. Indian Journal of Law and Technology, Vol. 20., No. 1. (2025) https://doi.org/10.55496/AYHD3045
Hall, Holly Kathleen: Deepfake Videos: When Seeing Isn’t Believing. Catholic University Journal of Law and Technology, Vol. 27., No. 1. (2018)
Harris, David – O’Boyle, Michael – Warbrick, Colin: Law of the European Convention on Human Rights. (Third edition.) Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014.
Harris, Douglas: Deepfakes: False Pornography Is Here and the Law Cannot Protect You. Duke Law & Technology Review, Vol. 17., No. 1. (2018–2019)
Hasen, Richard L.: Deep Fakes, Bots, and Siloed Justices: American Election Law in a “Post-Truth” World. Saint Louis University Law Journal, Vol. 64., No. 4. (2020)
Hasen, Richard L.: Federal Court in Kohls v. Bonta, in Striking Down California Deep Fake Law on First Amendment Grounds, Sees Constitutional Path for More Narrowly Tailored Laws Aimed at False Statements About When, Where, and How People Vote. Election Law Blog, August 30, 2025. https://electionlawblog.org/?p=151838
Ivancevich, Alyssa: Deepfake Reckoning: Adapting Modern First Amendment Doctrine to Protect against the Threat Posed to Democracy. Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly, Vol. 49., No. 1. (2022)
Koltay, András – Papp, János Tamás – Nemere, Péter: Hamis hírek. A dezinformáció jogi szabályozása. Budapest, Gondolat, 2026.
Łabuz, Mateusz – Nehring, Christopher: On the way to deep fake democracy? Deep fakes in election campaigns in 2023. European Political Science, Vol. 23., No. 4. (2024) https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-024-00482-9
Langa, Jack: Deepfakes, Real Consequences: Crafting Legislation to Combat Threats Posed by Deepfakes. Boston University Law Review, Vol. 101., No. 2. (2021)
Larkin, C. J.: Regulating Election Deepfakes: A Comparison of State Laws. Tech Policy Press, January 8, 2025. https://www.techpolicy.press/regulating-election-deepfakes-a-comparison-of-state-laws/
Lieffring, Staci: First Amendment and the Right to Lie: Regulating Knowingly False Campaign Speech After United States v. Alvarez. Minnesota Law Review, Vol. 97., No. 3. (2013) https://doi.org/10.24926/265535.1251
Moreno, Felipe Romero: Generative AI and deepfakes: a human rights approach to tackling harmful content. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, Vol. 38., No. 3. (2024) https://doi.org/10.1080/13600869.2024.2324540
O’Donnell, Nicholas: Have We No Decency? Section 230 and the Liability of Social Media Companies for Deepfake Videos. University of Illinois Law Review, No. 2. (2021)
Paget, Alex: (Synthetic) Stump Speech: Crafting Generative AI Disclosure Regulations for Political Advertisements. Fordham Law Review, Vol. 93., No. 1. (2024)
Painter, Richard W.: Deepfake 2024: Will Citizens United and Artificial Intelligence Together Destroy Representative Democracy? Journal of National Security Law and Policy, Vol. 14., No. 1. (2023) https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4558216
Park, Michael K.: Marketplace (Failure) of Ideas: Foreign Disinformation Campaigns in an Age of Generative A.I. and Proportionality Approach to Falsehoods. North Carolina Journal of Law & Technology, Vol. 26., No. 1. (2024)
Pawelec, Maria: Deepfakes and Democracy (Theory): How Synthetic Audio‑Visual Media for Disinformation and Hate Speech Threaten Core Democratic Functions. Digital Society, Vol. 1., No. 2. (2022) https://doi.org/10.1007/s44206-022-00010-6
Ray, Andrew: Disinformation, Deepfakes and Democracies: The Need for Legislative Reform. University of New South Wales Law Journal, Vol. 44., No. 3. (2021) https://doi.org/10.53637/DELS2700
Reid, Shannon: The Deepfake Dilemma: Reconciling Privacy and First Amendment Protections. University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 23., 1. (2021)
Sunstein, Cass R.: Falsehoods and the First Amendment. Harvard Journal of Law & Technolog, Vol. 33., No. 2. (2020) https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3426765
Sylvester, Shannon: Don’t Let Them Fake You out: How Artificially Mastered Videos Are Becoming the Newest Threat in the Disinformation War and What Social Media Platforms Should Do about It. Federal Communications Law Journal, Vol. 73., No. 3. (2021)
Vaccari, Cristian – Chadwick, Andrew: Deepfakes and Disinformation: Exploring the Impact of Synthetic Political Video on Deception, Uncertainty, and Trust in News. Social Media + Society, Vol. 6., No. 1. (2020) https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120903408
Wampler, Jack: Deep Concern: Safeguarding Elections in the Age of Deepfakes. Arizona Law Review, Vol. 66., No. 3. (2024)
Weiner, Matthew D.: Destined to Deceive: The Need to Regulate Deepfakes with a Foreseeable Harm Standard. Michigan Law Review, Vol. 122., No. 4. (2024) https://doi.org/10.36644/mlr.122.4.destined
Wilkerson, Lindsey: Still Waters Run Deep(fakes): The Rising Concerns of „Deepfake” Technology and Its Influence on Democracy and the First Amendment. Missouri Law Review, Vol. 86., No. 1. (2021)
Yamaoka-Enkerlin, Anna: Disrupting Disinformation: Deepfakes and the Law. New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy, Vol. 22., No. 3. (2020)
Copyright (c) 2026 Tamás Szikora
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
